Characterization of Tar and Biochar as By-Products of Rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) Pellet Gasification
Keywords:
tar, biochar, downdraft gasifier, rubberwood pellets, GC-MS, XRD, FTIR, FE-SEM/EDSAbstract
Gasification of rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) pellets represents a promising pathway for valorizing abundant lignocellulosic biomass into a renewable energy source. In addition to producing synthesis gas (syngas), the process generates by-products such as tar and biochar, which require comprehensive characterization to support process optimization and downstream utilization. The downdraft gasifier was chosen because it produces less tar than other types of gasifiers. This study aims to analyze the chemical composition and characteristics of tar and biochar as by-products of wood pellet gasification of Hevea brasiliensis using a downdraft gasifier. Tar chemical components were analyzed using GC-MS, and biochar characteristics were analyzed using XRD, FTIR, and FE-SEM/EDS. The chemical composition of tar comprises complex compounds, including carboxylic acids, alkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and phenols. The FTIR spectrum reveals that biochar is characterized by functional groups associated with oxygenated hydrocarbons, which reflect the structural components of carbohydrates, cellulose, and hemicellulose (C−O, C=O, C−H, C=C, C≡C, and C−N). The XRD pattern shows four diffraction peaks, including two sharp and intense peaks (2θ = 28° and 40°), with the highest crystallinity peak of 71.73 % and a crystal size of 5.47 nm. The biochar structure was analyzed using SEM, revealing scattered pore-like holes and grooves at 1000× magnification, and flakes with pebble-like shapes at 5000×. The chemical elements detected in biochar include carbon, oxygen, aluminium, silicon, potassium, calcium, and iron. The major element is carbon, with an atomic percentage of 80.97 %.
Acknowledgments: The authors sincerely thank the Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER) for the generous support through the provision of a 20 kW Gasifier and Syngas Generator, granted under Grant Letter No. KIER-2023-05-03-01. This support greatly contributed to the successful completion of this study.
For citation: Hidayat W., Amelia F.M., Prasetia H., Febryano I.G., Park B., Haryanto A. Characterization of Tar and Biochar as By-Products of Rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) Pellet Gasification. Lesnoy Zhurnal = Russian Forestry Journal, 2026, no. 5, pp. 152–166. (In Russ.).
https://doi.org/10.37482/0536-1036-2026-5-152-166
Downloads
References
Ahmad M., Lee S.S., Dou X., Mohan D., Sung J.K., Yang J.E., et al. Effects of Pyrolysis Temperature on Soybean Stover- and Peanut Shell-Derived Biochar Properties and TCE Adsorption in Water. Bioresource Technology, 2012, vol. 118, pp. 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.042
Aldi N., Casari N., Pinelli M., Suman A., Vulpio A. Performance Degradation of a Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger Due to Tar Deposition. Energies, 2022, vol. 15, iss. 4, art. 1490. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041490
Altarawneh M., Ali L. Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Thermal Systems: A Comprehensive Mechanistic Review. Energy & Fuels, 2024, vol. 38(22), pp. 21735–21792. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c03513
Bourke J., Manley-Harris M., Fushimi C., Dowaki K., Nunoura T., Antal M.J. Do All Carbonized Charcoals Have the Same Chemical Structure? 2. A Model of the Chemical Structure of Carbonized Charcoal. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2007, vol. 46(18), pp. 5954–5967. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie070415u
Chakraborty I., Sathe S.M., Dubey B.K., Ghangrekar M.M. Waste-Derived Biochar: Applications and Future Perspective in Microbial Fuel Cells. Bioresource Technology, 2020, vol. 312, art. 123587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123587
Chang S., Zhang Z., Cao L., Ma L., You S., Li W. Co-Gasification of Digestate and Lignite in a Downdraft Fixed Bed Gasifier: Effect of Temperature. Energy Conversion and Management, 2020, vol. 213, art. 112798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112798
Chen C., Liang W., Fan F., Wang C. The Effect of Temperature on the Properties of Hydrochars Obtained by Hydrothermal Carbonization of Waste Camellia oleifera Shells. ACS Omega, 2021, vol. 6(25), pp. 16546–16552. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c01787
Chen Y., Zhang X., Chen W., Yang H., Chen H. The Structure Evolution of Biochar from Biomass Pyrolysis and Its Correlation with Gas Pollutant Adsorption Performance. Bioresource Technology, 2017, vol. 246, art. 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.138
Fatriasari W., Ridho M.R., Karimah A., Sudarmanto I., Amin Y., Ismayati M., et al. Characterization of Indonesian Banana Species as an Alternative Cellulose Fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 2022, vol. 19, iss. 16, pp. 14396–14413. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2022.2064394
Funke A., Ziegler F. Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass: A Summary and Discussion of Chemical Mechanisms for Process Engineering. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 2010, vol. 4, iss. 2, pp. 160–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.198
Gholami P., Khataee A., Soltani R.D.C., Bhatnagar A. A Review on Carbon-Based Materials for Heterogeneous Sonocatalysis: Fundamentals, Properties and Applications. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2019, vol. 58, art. 104681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104681
Han J., Kim H. The Reduction and Control Technology of Tar During Biomass Gasification/Pyrolysis: An Overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2008, vol. 12, iss. 2, pp. 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2006.07.015
Hossain M.A., Islam M.S., Hassan M.S., Motalib M.A., et al. Feasibility of Solar Pump for Sustainable Irrigation in Bangladesh. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 2015, vol. 6, no. 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40095-015-0162-4
Iwuozor K.O., Luque R., Emenike E.C., Adeniyi A.G. Self-Sustaining Valorization of Waste Tree Bark for Simultaneous Biochar, Soot, and Ash Production. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 2025, vol. 19, iss. 3, pp. 882–893. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2747
Izzatie N.I., Basha M.H., Uemura Y., Hashim M.S.M., Afendi M., Mazlan M.A.F. Co-Pyrolysis of Rubberwood Sawdust (RWS) and Polypropylene (PP) in a Fixed Bed Pyrolyzer. Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Sciences, 2019, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 4636–4647. https://doi.org/10.15282/jmes.13.1.2019.20.0390
Jadhav S., Avila J., Schöll M., Kovacs G.G., Kövari E., Skrabana R., et al. A Walk through Tau Therapeutic Strategies. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 2019, vol. 7, art. 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-019-0664-z
Jayanarasimhan A., Pathak R.M., Shivapuji A.M., Rao L. Tar Formation in Gasification Systems: A Holistic Review of Remediation Approaches and Removal Methods. ACS Omega, 2024, vol. 9(2), pp. 2060–2079. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c04425
Jindo K., Mizumoto H., Sawada Y., Sanchez-Monedero M.A., Sonoki T. Physical and Chemical Characterization of Biochars Derived from Different Agricultural Residues. Biogeosciences, 2014, vol. 11, iss. 23, pp. 6613–6621. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-6613-2014
Karimi A., Naghizadeh A., Biglari H., Peirovi R., Ghasemi A., Zarei A. Assessment of Human Health Risks and Pollution Index for Heavy Metals in Farmlands Irrigated by Effluents of Stabilization Ponds. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2020, vol. 27, pp. 10317–10327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07642-6
Khaledi S., Delbari M., Galavi H., Bagheri H., Chari M.M. Effects of Biochar Particle Size, Biochar Application Rate, and Moisture Content on Thermal Properties of an Unsaturated Sandy Loam Soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 2023, vol. 226, art. 105579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105579
Khataee A., Gholami P., Kalderis D., Pachatouridou E., Konsolakis M. Preparation of Novel CeO₂-Biochar Nanocomposite for Sonocatalytic Degradation of a Textile Dye. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 2018, vol. 41, pp. 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.10.013
Li D., Li C., Fan M., Shao Y., Sun Y., Zhang L., et al. Investigation of Property of Biochar in Staged Pyrolysis of Cellulose. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2023, vol. 172, art. 105999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2023.105999
Liang Y., Zhao X., Ma P.X., Guo B., Du Y., Han X. pH-Responsive Injectable Hydrogels with Mucosal Adhesiveness Based on Chitosan-Grafted-Dihydrocaffeic Acid and Oxidized Pullulan for Localized Drug Delivery. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2019, vol. 536, pp. 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2018.10.056
Libra J.A., Ro K.S., Kammann C., Funke A., Berge N.D., Neubauer Y., et al. Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass Residuals: A Comparative Review of the Chemistry, Processes and Applications of Wet and Dry Pyrolysis. Biofuels, 2011, vol. 2, iss. 1, pp. 71–106. https://doi.org/10.4155/bfs.10.81
Lyutyy P., Bekhta P., Ortynska G., Sedliačik J. Formaldehyde, Phenol and Ammonia Emissions from Wood/Recycled Polyethylene Composites. Acta Facultatis Xylologiae Zvolen, 2017, vol. 59(1), pp. 107–112. https://doi.org/10.17423/afx.2017.59.1.10
Matsumoto K., Yanagi T., Oe Y. Recent Advances in the Synthesis of Carboxylic Acid Esters. Carboxylic Acid – Key Role in Life Sciences. Ed. by G.I. Badea, G.L. Radu. IntechOpen, 2018, pp. 7–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74543
Milne T.A., Evan R.J., Abatzoglu N. Biomass Gasifier “Tars”: Their Nature, Formation, and Conversion. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Report. Golden, Colorado, NREL, 1998. 68 p. https://doi.org/10.2172/3726
Muvhiiwa R., Kuvarega A., Llana E.M., Muleja A. Study of Biochar from Pyrolysis and Gasification of Wood Pellets in a Nitrogen Plasma Reactor for Design of Biomass Processes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2019, vol. 7, iss. 5, art. 103391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103391
Novais S.V., Zenero M.D.O., Barreto M.S.C., Montes C.R., Cerri C.E.P. Phosphorus Removal from Eutrophic Water Using Modified Biochar. Science of the Total Environment, 2018, vol. 633, pp. 825–835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.246
Onwudili J.A., Nahil M.A., Wu C., Williams P.T. High Temperature Pyrolysis of Solid Products Obtained from Rapid Hydrothermal Pre-Processing of Pinewood Sawdust. RSC Advances, 2014, vol. 4, iss. 66, pp. 34784–34792. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA04761C
Pereira V.V., Morales M.M., Pereira D.H., de Rezende F.A., de Souza Magalhães C.A., de Lima L.B., et al. Activated Biochar-Based Organomineral Fertilizer Delays Nitrogen Release and Reduces N2O Emission. Sustainability, 2022, vol. 14, iss. 19, art. 12388. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912388
Presidential Regulation No. 22/2017 on the National Energy Plan (RUEN). Government of Indonesia. 2017. 6 p. Available at: https://jdih.esdm.go.id/common/dokumen-external/Perpres%2022%20Tahun%202017.pdf (accessed 05.10.26). (In Indonesian).
Reza M.S., Afroze S., Bakar M.S., Saidur R., Aslfattahi N., Taweekun J., Azad A.K. Biochar Characterization of Invasive Pennisetum purpureum Grass: Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature. Biochar, 2020, vol. 2, pp. 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-020-00048-0
Shi L., Sessim M., Tonks M.R., Phillpot S.R. High-Temperature Oxidation of Carbon Fiber and Char by Molecular Dynamics Simulation. Carbon, 2021, vol. 185, pp. 449–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2021.09.038
Smith B.C. The Infrared Spectra of Polymers, VI: Polymers with C-O Bonds. Spectroscopy, 2022, vol. 37, iss. 5, pp. 15–19. https://doi.org/10.56530/spectroscopy.ly3071f5
Usowicz B., Lipiec J., Łukowski M., Marczewski W., Usowicz J. The Effect of Biochar Application on Thermal Properties and Albedo of Loess Soil under Grassland and Fallow. Soil and Tillage Research, 2016, vol. 164, pp. 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2016.03.009
Valderrama Rios M.L., González A.M., Lora E.E.S., Almazán del Olmo O.A. Reduction of Tar Generated during Biomass Gasification: A Review. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2018, vol. 108, pp. 345–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.12.002
Vinturelle R., Cabral T.S., Oliveira P.C.O.d., Salles J., Faria J.V., Teixeira G.P., et al. Slow Pyrolysis of Terminalia catappa L. Municipal Solid Waste and the Use of the Aqueous Fraction Produced for Bovine Mastitis Control. Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports, 2024, vol. 38, art. 101704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrep.2024.101704
Wang K., Remón J., Jiang Z., Ding W. Recent Advances in the Preparation and Application of Biochar Derived from Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Mini Review. Polymers, 2024, vol. 16, iss. 6, art. 851. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060851
Wijitkosum S., Jiwnok P. Elemental Composition of Biochar Obtained from Agricultural Waste for Soil Amendment and Carbon Sequestration. Applied Sciences, 2019, vol. 9, iss. 19, art. 3980. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9193980
Xiao L.-P., Shi Z.-J., Xu F., Sun R.-C. Hydrothermal Carbonization of Lignocellulosic Biomass. Bioresource Technology, 2012, vol. 118, pp. 619–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.060
Xue Y., Guo Y., Zhang X., Kamali M., Aminabhavi T.M., Appels L., et al. Efficient Adsorptive Removal of Ciprofloxacin and Carbamazepine Using Modified Pinewood Biochar – A Kinetic, Mechanistic Study. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, vol. 450, part 1, art. 137896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.137896
Yin Q., Liu M., Ren H. Biochar Produced from the Co-Pyrolysis of Sewage Sludge and Walnut Shell for Ammonium and Phosphate Adsorption from Water. Journal of Environmental Management, 2019, vol. 249, art. 109410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109410
Zhang J., Huo H., Zhang L., Yang Y., Li H., Ren Y., et al. Effect of High-Temperature Hydrothermal Treatment on the Cellulose Derived from the Buxus Plant. Polymers, 2022, vol. 14, iss. 10, pp. 2053. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102053
Zhao Z., Yan H., Gu L. An Electrocatalytic Mono-Functionalization of Alkenes towards Alkenyl Selenium Sulfonates. Chemical Communications, 2025, vol. 61, iss. 19, pp. 3868–3871. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4cc06246a
Ziolkowska A., Debska B., Banach-Szott M. Transformations of Phenolic Compounds in Meadow Soils. Scientific Reports, 2020, vol. 10, art. 19330. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76316-7
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Hidayat W., Amelia F.M., Prasetia H., Febryano I.G., Park B., Haryanto A.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
