Exercise Breathing Reserve in Cross-Country Skiers: Ventilatory Capacity vs. Ventilatory Demand
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37482/2687-1491-Z291Keywords:
breathing reserve, highly-trained cross-country skiers, exercise, bicycle ergometry test, lung function, ventilationAbstract
Breathing reserve (BR), defined as the difference between ventilatory capacity and ventilatory demand during exercise, is an indicator of respiratory limitations. However, it is unclear which of the two factors has the greatest impact on BR in cross-country skiers during cardiopulmonary exercise testing on a bicycle ergometer (CPET). The purpose of this study is to investigate how ventilatory capacity and ventilatory demand influence BR during CPET in highly-trained cross-country skiers. Materials and methods. Current members of the Komi Republic national cross-country skiing team (n = 46; aged 22.6 ± 4.7) underwent spirometry and CPET at the beginning of the preparatory training period. BR was calculated at rest and during CPET – at the anaerobic threshold and at peak exercise. The athletes were divided into two groups with low BR (≤20%) and normal BR (>20%) at peak exercise. Results. The two groups showed no lung function differences. However, at peak exercise, the low BR group demonstrated statistically significant higher breathing frequency, minute ventilation, ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide, respiratory exchange ratio, and lower end-tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure. BR directly correlated with forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in the first second and the Tiffeneau index at peak exercise. BR demonstrated an inverse correlation with breathing frequency and minute ventilation throughout the test, as well as with oxygen consumption (except at peak exercise). Thus, in cross-country skiers, exercise intensity significantly influences the relationship between ventilatory capacity and BR, while the relationship between ventilatory demand and BR remains constant. Importantly, low BR at peak exercise, even with comparable exercise capacity in the groups of skiers, is associated with increased ventilatory demand.
Funding. This study was prepared as part of the research work of the Institute of Physiology of Komi Science Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2022–2026) No. 1021051201877-3.
For citation: Veselik A.K., Varlamova N.G., Bojko E.R. Exercise Breathing Reserve in Cross-Country Skiers: Ventilatory Capacity vs. Ventilatory Demand. Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 2026, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 53–63. https://doi.org/10.37482/2687-1491-Z291
Downloads
References
Staes M., Gyselinck I., Goetschalckx K., Troosters T., Janssens W. Identifying Limitations to Exercise with Incremental Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing: A Scoping Review. Eur. Respir. Rev., 2024, vol. 33, no. 173. Art. no. 240010. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0010-2024
Barron A., Francis D.P., Mayet J., Ewert R., Obst A., Mason M., Elkin S., Hughes A.D., Wensel R. Oxygen Uptake Efficiency Slope and Breathing Reserve, not Anaerobic Threshold, Discriminate Between Patients with Cardiovascular Disease over Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. JACC Heart Fail., 2016, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2015.11.003
Petek B.J., Gustus S.K., Wasfy M.M. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing in Athletes: Expect the Unexpected. Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med., 2021, vol. 23, no. 7. Art. no. 49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11936-021-00928-z
Guazzi M., Arena R., Halle M., Piepoli M.F., Myers J., Lavie C.J. 2016 Focused Update: Clinical Recommendations for Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing Data Assessment in Specific Patient Populations. Circulation, 2016, vol. 133, no. 24, pp. e694–e711. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000406
Herdy A.H., Ritt L.E., Stein R., Araújo C.G., Milani M., Meneghelo R.S., Ferraz A.S., Hossri C., Almeida A.E., Fernandes-Silva M.M. et al. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test: Background, Applicability and Interpretation. Arq. Bras. Cardiol., 2016, vol. 107, no. 5, pp. 467–481. https://doi.org/10.5935/abc.20160171
Petek B.J., Tso J.V., Churchill T.W., Guseh J.S., Loomer G., DiCarli M., Lewis G.D., Weiner R.B., Kim J.H., Wasfy M.M. et al. Normative Cardiopulmonary Exercise Data for Endurance Athletes: The Cardiopulmonary Health and Endurance Exercise Registry (CHEER). Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol., 2022, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwab150
Rasch-Halvorsen Ø., Hassel E., Brumpton B.M., Jenssen H., Spruit M.A., Langhammer A., Steinshamn S. Lung Function and Peak Oxygen Uptake in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Phenotypes with and without Emphysema. PLoS One, 2021, vol. 16, no. 5. Art. no. e0252386. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252386
Sandbakk Ø., Holmberg H.C. Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform., 2017, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0749
Neder J.A., Berton D.C., Marillier M., Bernard A.C., O’Donnell D.E. Inspiratory Constraints and Ventilatory Inefficiency are Superior to Breathing Reserve in the Assessment of Exertional Dyspnea in COPD. COPD J. Chronic Obstruct. Pulm. Dis., 2019, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/15412555.2019.1631776
Berton D.C., Plachi F., James M.D., Vincent S.G., Smyth R.M., Domnik N.J., Phillips D.B., de-Torres J.P., Nery L.E., O’Donnell D.E. et al. Dynamic Ventilatory Reserve During Incremental Exercise: Reference Values and Clinical Validation in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc., 2023, vol. 20, no. 10, pp. 1425–1434. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.202304-303OC
McNeill J., Chernofsky A., Nayor M., Rahaghi F.N., Estepar R.S.J., Washko G., Synn A., Vasan R.S., O᾿Connor G., Larson M.G. et al. The Association of Lung Function and Pulmonary Vasculature Volume with Cardiorespiratory Fitness in the Community. Eur. Respir. J., 2022, vol. 60, no. 2. Art. no. 2101821. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01821-2021
Opina M.T.D., Brinkley T.E., Gordon M., Lyles M.F., Nicklas B.J. Association of Breathing Reserve at Peak Exercise with Body Composition and Physical Function in Older Adults with Obesity. J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., 2019, vol. 74, no. 12, pp. 1973–1979. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/gly276.
Quanjer P.H., Tammeling G.J., Cotes J.E., Pedersen O.F., Peslin R., Yernault J.C. Lung Volumes and Forced Ventilatory flows. Report Working Party Standardization of Lung Function Tests, European Community for Steel and Coal. Official Statement of the European Respiratory Society. Eur. Respir. J. Suppl., 1993, no. 16, pp. 5–40.
Solberg G., Robstad B., Skjønsberg O.H., Borchsenius F. Respiratory Gas Exchange Indices for Estimating the Anaerobic Threshold. J. Sports Sci. Med., 2005, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 29–36.
Zagatto A.M., Miyagi W., Sakugawa R.L., Kaminagakura E.I., Papoti M. Aerobic Endurance Measurement by Respiratory Exchange Ratio During a Cycle Ergometer Graded Exercise Test. J. Exerc. Physiol. Online, 2012, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 49–56.
American Thoracic Society, American College of Chest Physicians. ATS/ACCP Statement on Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2003, vol. 167, no. 2, pp. 211–277. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.167.2.211
Hackett D.A. Lung Function and Respiratory Muscle Adaptations of Endurance- and Strength-Trained Males. Sports (Basel), 2020, vol. 8, no. 12. Art. no. 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports8120160
Bernhardsen G.P., Stang J., Halvorsen T., Stensrud T. Differences in Lung Function, Bronchial Hyperresponsiveness and Respiratory Health Between Elite Athletes Competing in Different Sports. Eur. J. Sport Sci., 2023, vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 1480–1489. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2022.2113144
Komici K., D’Amico F., Verderosa S., Piomboni I., D’Addona C., Picerno V., Bianco A., Caiazzo A., Bencivenga L., Rengo G. et al. Impact of Body Composition Parameters on Lung Function in Athletes. Nutrients, 2022, vol. 14, no. 18. Art. no. 3844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14183844.
Holmberg H.C. The Elite Cross-Country Skier Provides Unique Insights into Human Exercise Physiology. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports, 2015, vol. 25, no. S4, pp. 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12601
Poole D.C., Rossiter H.B., Brooks G.A., Gladden L.B. The Anaerobic Threshold: 50+ Years of Controversy. J. Physiol., 2021, vol. 599, no. 3, pp. 737–767. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP279963
Collins S.E., Phillips D.B., Brotto A.R., Rampuri Z.H., Stickland M.K. Ventilatory Efficiency in Athletes, Asthma and Obesity. Eur. Respir. Rev., 2021, vol. 30, no. 161. Art. no. 200206. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0206-2020
Nicolò A., Massaroni C., Passfield L. Respiratory Frequency During Exercise: The Neglected Physiological Measure. Front. Physiol., 2017, vol. 8. Art. no. 922. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00922
Dempsey J.A., La Gerche A., Hull J.H. Is the Healthy Respiratory System Built Just Right, Overbuilt, or Underbuilt to Meet the Demands Imposed by Exercise? J. Appl. Physiol. (1985), 2020, vol. 129, no. 6, pp. 1235–1256. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00444.2020
Oueslati F., Berriri A., Boone J., Ahmaidi S. Respiratory Muscle Strength Is Decreased after Maximal Incremental Exercise in Trained Runners and Cyclists. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol., 2018, vol. 248, pp. 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2017.11.005
Lundby C., Montero D., Joyner M. Biology of V̇O2max: Looking under the Physiology Lamp. Acta Physiol. (Oxf.), 2017, vol. 220, no. 2, pp. 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.12827
Korzan S., Mclellan N., Sharma A., Kaiser T., Datta D. Comparison of Breathing Reserve Obtained from Measured and Estimated Maximal Voluntary Ventilation in Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing. Chest, 2018, vol. 154, no. 4S. Art. no. 970A. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2018.08.882
Balady G.J., Arena R., Sietsema K., Myers J., Coke L., Fletcher G.F., Forman D., Franklin B., Guazzi M., Gulati M. et al. Clinician’s Guide to Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing in Adults: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2010, vol. 122, no. 2, pp. 191–225. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181e52e69
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Veselik A.K., Varlamova N.G., Bojko E.R.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
